The instrumental revolution

 The instrumental revolution

As far as the daily practice of chemical research is concerned, probably the most dramatic change during the 20th century was the revolution in methods of analysis. In 1930 chemists still used “wet-chemical,” or test-tube, methods that had changed little in the previous hundred years: reagent tests, titrations, determination of boiling and melting points, elemental combustion analysis, synthetic and analytic structural arguments, and so on. Starting with commercial labs that provided an out-source for routine analyses and with pH meters that displaced chemical indicators, chemists increasingly began to rely on physical instrumentation and specialists rather than personally administered wet-chemical methods. Physical instrumentation provides the sharp “eyes” that can see to the atomic-molecular level.

In the 1910s J.J. Thomson and his assistant Francis Aston had developed the mass spectrograph to measure atomic and molecular weights with high accuracy. It was gradually improved, so that by the 1940s the mass spectrograph had been transformed into the mass spectrometer—no longer a machine for atomic weight research but rather an analytical instrument for the routine identification of complex unknown compounds (see mass spectrometry). Similarly, colorimetry had a long history, dating back well into the previous century. In the 1940s colorimetric principles were applied to sophisticated instrumentation to create a range of usable spectrophotometers, including visible, infrared, ultraviolet, and Raman spectroscopy. The later addition of laser and computer technology to analytical spectrometers provided further sophistication and also offered important tools for studies of the kinetics and mechanisms of reactions.

Chromatography, used for generations to separate mixtures and identify the presence of a target substance, was ever more impressively automated, and gas chromatography (GC) in particular experienced vigorous development. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which uses radio waves interacting with a magnetic field to reveal the chemical environments of hydrogen atoms in a compound, was also developed after World War II. Early NMR machines were available in the 1950s; by the 1960s they were workhorses of organic chemical analysis. Also by this time, GC-NMR combinations were introduced, providing chemists unexcelled ability to separate and analyze minute amounts of sample. In the 1980s NMR became well known to the general public, when the technique was applied to medicine—though the name of the application was altered to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to avoid the loaded word nuclear.

Many other instrumental methods have seen vigorous development, such as electron paramagnetic resonance and X-ray diffraction. In sum, between 1930 and 1970 the analytical revolution in chemistry utterly transformed the practice of the science and enormously accelerated its progress. Nor did the pace of innovation in analytical chemistry diminish during the final third of the century.

 Organic chemistry in the 20th century

No specialty was more affected by these changes than organic chemistry. The case of the American chemist Robert B. Woodward may be taken as illustrative. Woodward was the finest master of classical organic chemistry, but he was also a leader in aggressively exploiting new instrumentation, especially infrared, ultraviolet, and NMR spectrometry. His stock in trade was “total synthesis,” the creation of a (usually natural) organic substance in the laboratory, beginning with the simplest possible starting materials. Among the compounds that he and his collaborators synthesized were alkaloids such as quinine and strychnine, antibiotics such as tetracycline, and the extremely complex molecule chlorophyll. Woodward’s highest accomplishment in this field actually came six years after his receipt of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1965: the synthesis of vitamin B12, a notable landmark in complexity. Progress continued apace after Woodward’s death. By 1994 a group at Harvard University had succeeded in synthesizing an extraordinarily challenging natural product, called palytoxin, that had more than 60 stereocentres.

These total syntheses have had both practical and scientific spin-offs. Before the “instrumental revolution,” syntheses were often or even usually done to prove molecular structures. Today they are a central element of the search for new drugs. They can also illuminate theory. Together with a young Polish-born American chemical theoretician named Roald Hoffmann, Woodward followed up hints from the B12 synthesis that resulted in the formulation of orbital symmetry rules. These rules seemed to apply to all thermal or photochemical organic reactions that occur in a single step. The simplicity and accuracy of the predictions generated by the new rules, including highly specific stereochemical details of the product of the reaction, provided an invaluable tool for synthetic organic chemists.

Stereochemistry, born toward the end of the 19th century, received steadily increasing attention throughout the 20th century. The three-dimensional details of molecular structure proved to be not only critical to chemical (and biochemical) function but also extraordinarily difficult to analyze and synthesize. Several Nobel Prizes in the second half of the century—those awarded to Derek Barton of Britain, John Cornforth of Australia, Vladimir Prelog of the Soviet Union, and others—were given partially or entirely to honour stereochemical advances. Also important in this regard was the American Elias J. Corey, awarded the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1990, who developed what he called retrosynthetic analysis, assisted increasingly by special interactive computer software. This approach transformed synthetic organic chemistry. Another important innovation was combinatorial chemistry, in which scores of compounds are simultaneously prepared—all permutations on a basic type—and then screened for physiological activity.

Chemistry in the 21st century

 Chemistry in the 21st century

Two more innovations of the late 20th century deserve at least brief mention, especially as they are special focuses of the chemical industry in the 21st century. The phenomenon of superconductivity (the ability to conduct electricity with no resistance) was discovered in 1911 at temperatures very close to absolute zero (0 K, −273.15 °C, or −459.67 °F). In 1986 two Swiss chemists discovered that lanthanum copper oxide doped with barium became superconducting at the “high” temperature of 35 K (−238 °C, or −397 °F). Since then, new superconducting materials have been discovered that operate well above the temperature of liquid nitrogen—77 K (−196 °C, or −321 °F). In addition to its purely scientific interest, much research focuses on practical applications of superconductivity.

In 1985 Richard Smalley and Robert Curl at Rice University in Houston, Tex., collaborating with Harold Kroto of the University of Sussex in Brighton, Eng., discovered a fundamental new form of carbon, possessing molecules consisting solely of 60 carbon atoms. They named it buckminsterfullerene (later nicknamed “buckyball”), after Buckminster Fuller, the inventor of the geodesic dome. Research on fullerenes has accelerated since 1990, when a method was announced for producing buckyballs in large quantities and practical applications appeared likely. In 1991 Science magazine named buckminsterfullerene their “molecule of the year.”

Two centuries ago, Lavoisier’s chemical revolution could still be questioned by the English émigré Joseph Priestley. A century ago, the physical reality of the atom was still doubted by some. Today, chemists can maneuver atoms one by one with a scanning tunneling microscope, and other techniques of what has become known as nanotechnology are in rapid development. The history of chemistry is an extraordinary story.

Understanding Hardware and Software

 

Understanding Hardware and Software

To start your computer science journey, you first need to explore some basic concepts. First, we have hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer, like a screen, keyboard, and mouse. Software, on the other hand, is the collection of programs and instructions that tell the computer what to do.

Imagine a computer as a brain, with hardware as the body and software as the mind. The hardware provides the structure and functionality, while the software gives the computer intelligence and the ability to perform tasks. Just like you need both a body and a mind to function, computers rely on hardware and software working together.

Operating System

An operating system is like the boss of a computer. It manages all the tasks and makes sure everything runs smoothly. It helps you to interact with the computer and use different software and tasks. It controls the screen, keyboard, and other parts of the computer.

Example: Windows, macOS, and Android are examples of operating systems that run on computers and smartphones.

The Discipline of Informatics

 

The Discipline of Informatics

Note that in Europe we tend to use the term “Informatics” to denote the subject known in the USA and elsewhere as “Computer Science” (CS) or “Computing”.

Informatics is the science whose effect can be seen in two ways. It has created the new digital world in which text, images, movies and dynamic models of the real world can be stored, retrieved and manipulated, alongside a virtual world of games and simulation. It has been a major accelerator and often a necessary tool in research and development within all of the other sciences and engineering and created new disciplines in collaboration with them by developing new models of representing domain specific data and novel ways of human interaction with those models.

Informatics has its own corpus of concepts, theories, principles, methods, body of knowledge, and open issues. Through its scientific methods and technological developments, Informatics has brought about transformational change across a range of sectors. It now plays a vital role in every aspect of society, and challenges and affects all professions, disciplines, and school subjects. Its contribution to economic development is widely recognised and it has enabled advances and novel research in many disciplines. Its social impact is apparent in the ubiquitous nature of the World Wide Web and its further exploitation in the Internet of Things. Its scientific relevance is backed up by about 2 million peer-reviewed articles (out of an estimated overall total of 70 million) published in academic journals throughout the world since its birth around 60 years ago.

The Future Is Digital

 

The Future Is Digital 

The world is becoming digital day by day. Today, every job is performed with some kind of technology involved. Be it a doctor with the most recent machines or an artist with digital art, everything has technology in it.

Today, technology is one of the fastest-growing careers. Among them, programmers, data analysts, and cybersecurity experts have become extremely in demand.

Nowadays, even jobs outside of tech—like marketing, education, and healthcare—are using computer skills. Also, quite basic coding knowledge can open doors to exciting opportunities. Not just about writing code, though, but understanding how technology shapes the world. 

Why Informatics Education

Through Informatics, the digital world is developed and that this must be safe, secure and just. Currently many developments involving Informatics are shaping medicine, education, transport, etc. and pupils need to be attuned to that and to the tremendous opportunities that exist; such potential will only increase in the future.

Informatics education is fundamental to modern education. Techniques such as interaction, simulation and modeling, algorithm development, visualization, communication, searching capabilities, remote access to web sites, machine translation, machine learning can be used to enhance learning across all disciplines leading to a deeper understanding and appreciation of all disciplines.

What is computer science?

 

What is computer science?

Generally, computer science is defined as the study of computers and computational systems. In most cases, professional computer scientists work with software and software systems, instead of physically tinkering with the machines like their electrical and computer engineering counterparts.

Essentially, this means that computer scientists are more concerned with what is happening on the screen rather than what is happening inside the computer.

There are many areas of study within the field of computer science, including and not limited to, artificial intelligence, database management, software engineering, programming languages, computer security, vision and graphics, and computer systems and networks.

When it comes to the most integral part of computer science, coding or programming is the backbone of the field, being utilized to assist scientists in solving a wide range of tasks.

Computer science can appear very confusing on the surface because it deals with various abstract topics, such as physics, mathematical equations, and computer-based theories.

However, it is primarily focused on finding what is possible and impossible to do using a computer. Commonly, computer scientists will work closely with businesses, organizations, and individuals to improve their products, projects, or websites by using coding or by operating different forms of software.