André Marie Ampère

Lived 1775 – 1836.

André-Marie Ampère made the revolutionary discovery that a wire carrying electric current can attract or repel another wire next to it that’s also carrying electric current. The attraction is magnetic, but no magnets are necessary for the effect to be seen. He went on to formulate Ampere’s Law of electromagnetism and produced the best definition of electric current of his time.

Ampère also proposed the existence of a particle we now recognize as the electron, discovered the chemical element fluorine, and grouped elements by their properties over half a century before Dmitri Mendeleev produced his periodic table.

The SI unit of electric current, the ampere, is named in his honor.

Beginnings

André-Marie Ampère was born into a well-to-do family in the city of Lyon, France, on January 20, 1775. His father was Jean-Jacques Ampère, a businessman; his mother was Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey, the orphaned daughter of a silk-merchant. André-Marie’s parents already had a daughter, Antoinette, born two years before André-Marie.

It was an intellectually exciting period in French history; Antoine Lavoisier was revolutionizing chemistry; and Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the leaders of the French Enlightenment, were urging that society should be founded on science, logic, and reason rather than the religious teachings of the Catholic Church.

When André-Marie was five years old, his family moved to a country estate near the village of Poleymieux about six miles (10 km) from Lyon. His father had grown so wealthy that he no longer needed to spend much time in the city. A second daughter Josephine was born when André-Marie was eight.

An Unusual Education
The education André-Marie received was rather unusual. His father was a great admirer of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, one of the leaders of the French Enlightenment. He decided to follow Rousseau’s approach for André-Marie’s education. This meant no formal lessons.

André-Marie could do as he pleased, learning about anything he felt like. He was also allowed to read anything he wanted to from his father’s large library. A recipe for disaster, you may think? In fact, it worked! And it worked exceptionally well. André-Marie developed an insatiable thirst for knowledge, going as far as learning entire pages of an encyclopedia by heart.

Although a child of the French Enlightenment, André-Marie did not reject the church, and he remained a practicing Catholic throughout his life.

“My father… never required me to study anything, but he knew how to inspire in me a great desire for knowledge. Before learning to read, my greatest pleasure was to listen to passages from Buffon’s natural history. I constantly requested him to read me the history of animals and birds…”

 

Mathematics
Aged 13, André-Marie began a serious study of mathematics using books in his father’s library. He submitted a paper about conic sections to the Academy of Lyon, but it was rejected.

The rejection spurred him into working harder than ever. His father bought him specialist books to help him improve. He also took his son into Lyon, where Abbot Daburon gave him lessons in calculus – the first formal lessons André-Marie ever had.

Physics
Having taken his son for formal mathematics lessons, his father also took him to Lyon’s college to attend some physics lectures, which resulted in André-Marie beginning to read physics books as well as mathematics books.

Revolution Followed by Tragedies
Life so far had been peaceful and enjoyable for André-Marie, but a period of tragedy was beginning to unfold.

In 1789, when André-Marie was 14, the French Revolution began.

In 1791, while André-Marie continued his home-studies on their country estate, the revolutionaries gave his father the legal role of Justice of the Peace.

In 1792, André-Marie’s older sister Antoinette died.

In 1793, the Jacobin faction of the revolution guillotined his father. (The great chemist Antoine Lavoisier was guillotined by revolutionaries in 1794.)

Mercifully, André-Marie, studying mathematics and science on the family estate, survived the revolution’s reign of terror. He was devastated by his father’s death and abandoned his studies for a year.

Becoming a Mathematician and Scientist

In late 1797, aged 22, André-Marie Ampère opened up shop as a private mathematics tutor in Lyon. He proved to be an excellent tutor, and soon students were flocking to him for help.

His tutoring work came to the attention of Lyon’s intellectuals, who were impressed by Ampère’s knowledge and his enthusiasm.

In 1802, he became a school teacher in the town of Bourg 40 miles (60 km) from Lyon. A year later he returned to Lyon to work in another teaching position.

In 1804, he moved to the French capital, Paris, tutoring university level classes at the École Polytechnique. His work impressed other mathematicians so much that he was promoted to full professor of mathematics in 1809, despite having no formal qualifications.

André-Marie Ampère’s Contributions to Science

Electromagnetism and Electrodynamics

In 1800, while Ampère worked as a private tutor in Lyon, Alessandro Volta had invented the electric battery. One result of this was that for the first time ever, scientists could produce a steady electric current.

In April 1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a flow of electric current in a wire could deflect a nearby magnetic compass needle. Oersted had discovered a link between electricity and magnetism – electromagnetism.

In September 1820, François Arago demonstrated Oersted’s electromagnetic effect to France’s scientific elite at the French Academy in Paris. Ampère was present, having been elected to the Academy in 1814.

Ampère was fascinated by Oersted’s discovery and decided he would try to understand why electric current produced a magnetic effect.

The Electron

To explain the relationship between electricity and magnetism, Ampère proposed the existence of a new particle responsible for both of these phenomena – the electrodynamic molecule, a microscopic charged particle we can think of as a prototype of the electron. Ampère correctly believed that huge numbers of these electrodynamic molecules were moving in electric conductors, causing electric and magnetic phenomena.

Discovery of Fluorine

Ampère did not restrict his interests to mathematics and physics; they were wide ranging and included philosophy and astronomy. He was particularly interested in chemistry. In fact, preceding his work in electromagnetism, he made significant contributions to chemistry.

Ampère discovered and named the element fluorine. In 1810, he proposed that the compound we now call hydrogen fluoride consisted of hydrogen and a new element: the new element had similar properties to chlorine he said. He and Humphry Davy, who was British, entered into correspondence (even though France and Britain were at war). Ampère proposed that fluorine could be isolated by electrolysis, which Davy had previously used to discover elements such as sodium and potassium.

It was only in 1886 that French chemist Henri Moissan finally isolated fluorine. He achieved this using electrolysis, the method Ampère had recommended.

Black holes

Black holes

 Black holes are areas in the universe where gravity pulls in everything, even light. Nothing can get out and all objects are squeezed into a tiny space.  Because there is no light in black holes we cannot see them.  But scientists can detect the immense gravity and radiation around them. They are the most mysterious objects in astronomy. Scientists think that the first black holes were formed when the universe began about 13 billion of years ago.

Albert Einstein was the first scientist to predict that black holes existed. But it was in 1971 that the first black hole was actually discovered.

Black holes can have various sizes, some may be even as small as an atom. But they all have one thing in common – a very large mass.

There are three kinds of black holes :

A stellar occurs when very large stars burn away the rest of the fuel that they have and collapse. It is so massive that several of our suns could fit in it. Our sun, however, could never become a stellar because it is too small.

Supermassives are the largest and most dominating black holes in our universe. They have masses of a million or more suns put together. Every galaxy has a supermassive in its centre. As they become larger and larger they pull in more material. The black hole at the centre of our Milky Way is four million times as massive as our sun and surrounded by very hot gas.

Intermediate mass black holes have not been found yet, but scientists think they probably exist. They have the mass of between a hundred and a thousand suns.  

 A black hole consists of three parts:

The outer event horizon is the farthest away from the centre. Gravity here is not so strong and you would be able to escape from it.

The inner event horizon is the middle part of a black hole. In this area an object would be slowly pulled to the centre.

The singularity is the centre of a black hole, where gravity is strongest.

Madnets and magnetism.

Madnets and magnetism.

 A magnet is a piece of rock or metal that can pull other metals towards it. The force of magnets is called magnetism. Together with gravity and electricity it is a basic force of nature. Early humans discovered magnets and magnetism thousands of years ago. They found out that certain types of rock, called loadstone, pulled iron and other metal objects towards it. After some time they found out that thin pieces of such a rock would always point in one direction if you hung it on a piece of thread . The ends of such a metal are the poles of a magnet. All magnets have a magnetic field around them, the force between the two poles.

Magnets attract or repel other metals. This is because every magnet has two poles: a north and a south pole. North and south poles attract each other but two north poles or two south poles push each other apart.

Our planet is also a big magnet with a North and a South Pole. But the Earth’s magnetic poles are not in the same place as the geographic poles. The magnetic North Pole, for example, is in northern Canada. Compasses always point to the magnetic poles, not to the geographic ones.

Magnetism comes from electrons , the tiny particles that fly around the nucleus of an atom. They are negatively charged and produce a very weak magnetic field. When many of these electrons point towards the same direction they can pull metals to them.

It is also possible to make a magnet by taking an existing one and rubbing another piece of metal with it. If you keep rubbing the new piece of metal in the same direction its electrons will start to point in that direction , thus creating a new magnet.

If a magnet keeps its magnetic field all the time we call it a permanent magnet. However , not all magnets are permanent . Some objects become magnets only when electricity passes through them. They are called electromagnets. There are many examples of such electromagnets in everyday life: car motors, railway signals, loudspeakers .

Magnetism and electricity

In the 1700s scientists discovered that magnetism and electricity had similar features. Just like magnets have two poles, electricity has positive and negative charges . A positive and a negative charge attract each other and two negative or two positive charges repel each other.

After they had found this out they started making useful tools and machines with the help of electricity and magnetism. The Danish physicist Oersted sent electricity through a wire and put a compass near it. To his surprise the compass needle moved. Soon after that the first electromagnet was made by making a wire into a coil and sending electricity through it.

Use of magnets

The first magnetic instruments were compasses which sailors used to guide them on their journeys . Today, magnets can be found in many areas of everyday life. They are in washing machines, hold doors shut and work in generators and electric motors. Credit cards have magnetic strips on them that give you financial information. Magnetic audio and videotapes as well as disks have many tiny magnetic particles which are used to store sounds, pictures and other information.

In medicine a magnetic resonance imaging machine (MRI) can create exact pictures of organs and bones inside the human body . It is much better and more exact than x-rays .

Powerful electromagnets are attached to big cranes that can move iron and steel. In some parts of the world trains travel on tracks that are magnetized . These trains, called maglev, are lifted above the tracks and do not have any contact with them. They travel at speeds of up to 480 km an hour.

Magnets in animals

Scientists have also discovered that some animals, like pigeons , dolphins and turtles may have some magnetic particles in their body. They are able to detect the Earth’s magnetic field and find out their location.

 

 

X-rays

X-rays

 X-rays are high energy waves that are invisible. They are useful because they can pass through many things that normal light cannot. For example, doctors can see inside the human body and security guards at airports can see inside your handba

Discovery

In 1895, a German scientist, Wilhelm Roentgen, discovered X-rays by accident. He called them X-rays because he hadn’t seen such a form of energy before. In mathematics X means something unknown. Roentgen took his first X-ray pictures of the bones of his hand. In 1901 he received the first Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery.

X-Rays in Medicine

X-rays are valuable in medicine because they can see through certain parts of the body. Doctors can take pictures of bones, teeth and tissue. They use these pictures to see which bones are broken or to find out which teeth have holes in them.

To produce X-ray pictures you need two things: a special plate that can capture X-rays is placed behind a part of a person’s body. A machine that produces X-rays is put in front of the person.

The X-rays are strong enough to pass through the skin and muscles but they cannot pass through hard objects like bones. In the picture you see hard objects, like bones, as white areas. Objects that X-rays go through are dark.

There are some situations in which X-rays cannot give you a clear picture. Some organs, for example, may block X-rays from showing a broken bone. For this reason computed tomography (CT) was invented. A person is put inside a scanner, which is a large tube-shaped machine. Then he is X-rayed from all sides. A computer puts together all of these images and can show doctors more than a normal X-ray can. CTs are used for brain diseases and head injuries.

X-rays, however, can also do harm to your body. Patients must wear special protection for the parts of their body that are not X-rayed. Doctors and helpers who work with X-ray machines must wear lead aprons and stand behind screens.

X-rays are sometimes used to in the fight against cancer. Doctors often beam X-rays at cancer cells in order to destroy them.

X-rays in science

Scientists often use X-rays to study the structure of other organisms or minerals that are in rock. By bombarding material with X-rays you can tell how old an object is.

Since the 1970s X-rays have been used to study stars and galaxies that are very far away. X-ray telescopes are put on board satellites that orbit far above the earth’s surface. They can see things that telescopes on earth cannot detect, because X-rays are absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere.

Other uses

Factories use X-rays to find cracks in machines or in metal objects. At airports X-ray machines scan millions of handbags and suitcases for weapons like bombs, guns or knives.

Earthquakes

 Earthquakes

An earthquake is one of the worst natural disasters on our earth. We think that the ground we stand on is very stable, but it isn’t. It moves quite a lot. In the last few decades scientists have been able to find out why earthquakes happen.

Earthquakes happen when there is a sudden vibration in the earth’s crust. It’s like a large lorry that travels down your street. When it passes by, you feel your house shake.

Earthquakes can be caused by a lot of things :

Volcanoes that suddenly erupt

Meteorites that hit the earth

Undergrounds explosions

Buildings that fall apart

 But most earthquakes happen because the earth’s plates move.

In the middle of the 20th century scientists found out that continents do not always stay in the same place. They have been moving on plates for millions of years. The earth’s surface is made up of many such plates. Where two plates meet magma comes out of the inner part of the earth . These areas are called faults—breaks in the earth’s crust.

How plates move

When two plates move away from each other lava or magma comes out of the earth. Most of this happens at the bottom of oceans, where the earth’s crust is very thin. Lava cools down when it reaches the water and underwater mountains are formed.

When plates push towards each other—one of them slides under the other. Rocks are pushed up and new mountains are formed.

Some plates slide past each other— for example, one moves north and the other moves south . When these plates move along faults a lot of energy is released and the biggest earthquakes happen.

We only hear about earthquakes once in a while , but they really happen every day. There are more than 3 million earthquakes every year—about 8,000 every day or one every 11 seconds.

But most of them are very weak or they happen in places where nobody lives. Some of them take place on the sea floor.

Where do earthquakes happen ?

 Earthquakes occur all over the world but there are places where they happen more often. Big earthquakes can be found where plates meet.

80% of the world’s earthquakes happen around the Pacific Ocean—near the east coast of Asia and the west coast of America. Japan has over 2,000 earthquakes every year and California and South America are also very active earthquake zones. The edge of the Pacific Ocean is also called the “Ring of Fire” because there are also many active volcanoes in this region.

Earthquake Waves

When there is a sudden movement in the earth’s crust, energy moves in the form of waves . It’s like dropping something into water.

Body waves move through the inner part of the earth and surface waves travel over the earth’s surface.

Body waves can travel very fast—up to 8 km a second. They travel through rock , water and gas . When they reach other places on the earth’s surface they can be registered there. They are usually the first waves to get to the surface.

Surface waves cause the most damage, but they move very slowly. These waves come at the end of an earthquake.

Man-made Earthquakes

Sometimes people can make earthquakes happen. They can fill man-made lakes with water after building a dam—or they test atomic bombs underground. Some of these tests can help scientists find out how quakes happen.

How earthquakes are measured

With a machine called a seismograph scientists can tell where an earthquake happened and how strong it was.

The place in the earth where the movement takes place is called the focus or hypocentre. From here, waves start to spread out in all directions. This focus can be very near to the surface or it can be hundreds of km below it. The area on the surface exactly above the focus is called the epicentre. This is the place where the waves hit first and where the most damage is done.

Whenever an earthquake hits us you hear how powerful it is. The Richter Scale is used to rate the magnitude of earthquakes. Small quakes have a rating of under 4. You won’t see a lot of damage here. Medium-sized earthquakes reach between 5 and 7 on the scale, and the really big ones are above 7. The largest earthquake that has ever been registered was at 9.5 on the Richter scale.

There are more than 100 seismograph stations all over the world. When the earth shakes seismologists compare the information they get and then they can tell where the earthquake really happened.

Effects of earthquakes

Earthquakes make the ground move. Buildings shake and many of them collapse. Landslides also happen when rocks get loose.

Another danger is fire. In 1906 San Francisco was hit by a big earthquake and many houses burned down because they were made of wood.

When an earthquake occurs on the sea floor, big waves - called tsunamis—hit the coast. They often come without any warning and they kill many people and destroy buildings and streets near the coast.

Earthquakes also can lead to diseases, especially in developing countries. When water supplies are destroyed people don’t have safe water to drink. Sometimes earthquakes also hit hospitals where injured people are treated.

Dealing with earthquakes

We understand earthquakes a lot better today than we did 50 years ago, but we still can’t do very much about them. They are so powerful, that we cannot control them.

Scientists can tell us in which regions earthquakes will probably happen, but they can’t tell us exactly where.

So what can we do about earthquakes? We can make our houses we live in and buildings we work in safer. Today architects use materials that won’t collapse when an earthquake hits—like steel and concrete.

 

 

Isaac Newton - AGreat Scientist

Isaac Newton - AGreat Scientist

 Isaac Newton was one of the world's greatest scientists. He did research in mathematics, physics, astronomy and many other fields.

Newton was born in 1642. He worked on his family’s farm but was not really interested in farming. His father died before Isaac was born. In his childhood he spent much time with his grandmother. Newton didn’t have many friends and never married.

Newton did most of his scientific work at Cambridge, where he was a professor for many years. Although some other scientists criticized his work, he was admired throughout Europe. Queen Anne made Newton a knight. He died in 1727 and was buried at Westminster Abbey in London. 

Isaac Newton was very ambitious young scientist who carried out his experiments very accurately. His main theory was that everything in nature could be explained through mathematics. Not all scientists had the same opinion.

Newton was an astronomer, who studied the Earth, the planets and stars. He became well-known for theories of gravity, in which he claimed that all objects of the universe have a gravitational force that pulled other objects towards them. An apple is pulled to the Earth's surface just like the Earth is being pulled towards the sun. He also showed that planets move around the sun in ellipses. His theory of gravity dominated physics for some time.

He also conducted experiments with light and found out that normal light is made up of many colors. He used prisms to break up light into a rainbow of colors. Newton invented a new kind of telescope that used lenses. It made objects look bigger.

In his book “The Mathematical Principles” Newton describes the three laws of motion:

Every moving object keeps moving until something stops it. An object that lies on the ground continues to lie there until a force sets it in motion.

Acceleration happens when a force acts on a mass. The greater the mass the more force must be applied to move the object. For example, you need more force to push a car than you need to push a bike.

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. A rocket, for example, pushes down on the ground with its engines; the opposite action moves the rocket into the sky.

These principles were very difficult to understand at that time. Only few people really knew what Newton meant.

Newton also devoted a great deal of his life to alchemy. He studied it closely and believed that he was a special person who had magic powers and secret wisdom to change substances and objects. Newton wanted to keep these studies to himself; therefore he did not publish any of his alchemist works. At that time alchemy was a much-discussed topic that not everyone accepted.

Although Newton was one of the great scientists of his time, he based his work on the discoveries of Galileo and other scientists who lived before him. Scientists of following generations admired Newton's work. Albert Einstein, 20 th century scientist, thought highly of Newton’s work although his theory of general relativity moved away from his ideas.

X-Rays

 

X-Rays

X-rays are high energy waves that are invisible. They are useful because they can pass through many things that normal light cannot. For example, doctors can see inside the human body and security guards at airports can see inside your handbag.

                                                          Discovery

In 1895, a German scientist, Wilhelm Roentgen, discovered X-rays by accident. He called them X-rays because he hadn’t seen such a form of energy before. In mathematics X means something unknown. Roentgen took his first X-ray pictures of the bones of his hand. In 1901 he received the first Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery.

 X-Rays in Medicine

X-rays are valuable in medicine because they can see through certain parts of the body. Doctors can take pictures of bones, teeth and tissue. They use these pictures to see which bones are broken or to find out which teeth have holes in them.

To produce X-ray pictures you need two things: a special plate that can capture X-rays is placed behind a part of a person’s body. A machine that produces X-rays is put in front of the person.

The X-rays are strong enough to pass through the skin and muscles but they cannot pass through hard objects like bones. In the picture you see hard objects, like bones, as white areas. Objects that X-rays go through are dark.

There are some situations in which X-rays cannot give you a clear picture. Some organs, for example, may block X-rays from showing a broken bone. For this reason computed tomography (CT) was invented. A person is put inside a scanner, which is a large tube-shaped machine. Then he is X-rayed from all sides. A computer puts together all of these images and can show doctors more than a normal X-ray can. CTs are used for brain diseases and head injuries.

X-rays, however, can also do harm to your body. Patients must wear special protection for the parts of their body that are not X-rayed. Doctors and helpers who work with X-ray machines must wear lead aprons and stand behind screens.

X-rays are sometimes used to in the fight against cancer. Doctors often beam X-rays at cancer cells in order to destroy them.

 X-rays in science

Scientists often use X-rays to study the structure of other organisms or minerals that are in rock. By bombarding material with X-rays you can tell how old an object is.

Since the 1970s X-rays have been used to study stars and galaxies that are very far away. X-ray telescopes are put on board satellites that orbit far above the earth’s surface. They can see things that telescopes on earth cannot detect, because X-rays are absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere.

                                                           Other uses

Factories use X-rays to find cracks in machines or in metal objects. At airports X-ray machines scan millions of handbags and suitcases for weapons like bombs, guns or knives.